The history of independent India and Pakistan has been significantly shaped by a series of military conflicts, primarily centered around the disputed region of Jammu and Kashmir.
Understanding these wars, their causes, key events, and outcomes is crucial for aspirants of Kerala PSC examination, as they highlight geopolitical dynamics, military strategies, and diplomatic efforts in the subcontinent.
Table of Contents
Major Indo-Pak Wars
First Kashmir War (1947–1948)
Operation Gulmarg
Operation Rescue
India's immediate military intervention to protect Kashmir was codenamed Operation Rescue.
On 27 October 1947, following the formalization of the Instrument of Accession, the Indian Army initiated an emergency airlift of troops from Palam Air Force Station in Delhi to Srinagar.
Using Dakota aircraft, the 1st Battalion of the Sikh Regiment was among the first to land and secure the vital Srinagar airfield, effectively halting the tribal advance just miles from the city.
It marked the first major use of air power and logistics in India’s military history and effectively saved the valley from falling to the invaders.
Outcome of the First Kashmir War
Fighting continued through 1948, with both sides gaining and losing ground.
Eventually, India approached the United Nations for mediation. A UN-brokered ceasefire came into effect on 1 January 1949, freezing the conflict.
This ceasefire demarcated a boundary known as the Ceasefire Line (CFL), which was later renamed the Line of Control (LoC) following the Shimla Agreement of 1972.
As a result of the war, Pakistan gained control of approximately one-third of the former princely state, an area now referred to as Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) or Azad Kashmir, while India retained control of the larger portion, including the Kashmir Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh.
Second Kashmir War (1965)
Operation Gibraltar
Operation Grand Slam
Operation Riddle (Indian military counter-offensive)
Outcome: Stalemate and Tashkent Agreement
Tashkent Agreement (1966)
It was a peace accord signed on 10 January 1966 between India and Pakistan, under the mediation of the Soviet Union, following the Second Indo-Pak War of 1965.
The agreement was signed in Tashkent (then in the Soviet Union, now in Uzbekistan) by Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Field Marshal Ayub Khan, with Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin acting as mediator.
Under the terms of the agreement:
- Both sides agreed to withdraw to pre-war positions as of 5 August 1965, effectively restoring the status quo.
- Both nations committed to non-interference in each other’s internal affairs and to resolving future disputes through peaceful means and dialogue.
- Diplomatic relations were to be normalized and economic ties restored.
Though the agreement helped avert further escalation, it was criticized in both countries.
In India, some saw it as a missed opportunity for a stronger stance, while in Pakistan, it was viewed as a military failure.
Tragically, Indian PM Lal Bahadur Shastri died in Tashkent of a heart attack just hours after the agreement was signed, adding to its historical poignancy and mystery.
Bangladesh Liberation War / Indo-Pak War (1971)
Operation Jackpot
Operation Cactus Lily
This was the codename for India’s comprehensive military strategy encompassing both the Eastern and Western fronts.
In the East, the main strategy focused on a rapid, multi-pronged offensive by the Indian Army, supported by the Mukti Bahini, to isolate and neutralize the Pakistani forces.
Indian troops, alongside Mukti Bahini guerrillas, launched simultaneous offensives from the north, west, and east toward Dhaka.
On the Western Front, India adopted a more defensive posture but launched localized attacks to fix Pakistani troops in place, preventing reinforcements to the East.
The Eastern strategy was highly successful and led to the quick fall of Dhaka in just 13 days.
Operation Trident
This was India’s first major offensive naval operation, targeting the heavily guarded Karachi harbor, Pakistan’s primary naval base.
On the night of 4 December 1971, Indian Navy missile boats from the Western Naval Command - INS Nipat, INS Nirghat, and INS Veer - struck Karachi with Styx missiles.
They sank three Pakistani ships (including the destroyer PNS Khaibar), set Karachi’s oil tanks ablaze, and returned safely.
This audacious raid, the first use of anti-ship missiles in the region
This audacious raid, the first use of anti-ship missiles in the region, crippled Pakistan's naval capabilities, severely damaged its logistics, and had a significant psychological impact.
To commemorate this victory, December 4th is now celebrated as Navy Day in India.
Operation Python
Following the success of Operation Trident, the Indian Navy launched a second strike on Karachi harbor on the night of December 8-9, 1971, codenamed Operation Python.
This raid caused further destruction to fuel depots and ships in the harbor.
The combined effect of Trident and Python forced the Pakistan Navy to retreat and remain largely inactive for the rest of the war.
These operations also choked off Pakistan's maritime supply lines, contributing to their strategic isolation.
Meghna Heli Bridge Operation
One of the most innovative operations in the Eastern campaign, this maneuver was led by Lt. Gen. Sagat Singh.
The Meghna River posed a formidable natural barrier between Indian forces and Dhaka.
Instead of waiting to capture bridges (which were heavily defended or destroyed), the Indian Army used Mi-4 helicopters to airlift troops across the river directly into enemy-held territory.
This 'air bridge' allowed Indian forces to bypass Pakistani defenses, maintain momentum, and push toward Dhaka unimpeded.
It is considered a textbook example of bold airborne mobility and significantly hastened the war’s end.
Outcome: Decisive Indian victory & creation of Bangladesh
The 1971 Indo-Pak War concluded with a decisive and swift victory for India and the liberation of East Pakistan, leading to the creation of the independent nation of Bangladesh.
Over 93,000 Pakistani soldiers surrendered to the joint Indian and Mukti Bahini forces, marking the largest military surrender since World War II.
This war fundamentally altered the balance of power in South Asia and remains a significant historical event.
Kargil War (1999)
The Kargil War of 1999 was a significant armed conflict between India and Pakistan in the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir. It was a 60-day armed conflict between India and Pakistan that took place from May to July 1999.
In the summer of 1999, Pakistan Army personnel, disguised as Kashmiri militants, infiltrated across the Line of Control (LoC) and occupied strategic mountain peaks in the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir that had been vacated by Indian troops during the winter.
India's response was a two-pronged military operation encompassing both ground and air power to evict the intruders.
Operation Vijay (Ground Offensive)
Operation Vijay was the codename for the Indian Army's ground offensive to recapture the territories occupied by Pakistani intruders in the Kargil sector.
The primary goal was to restore the status quo ante by pushing back the infiltrators to their side of the Line of Control.
Facing challenging high-altitude terrain, intense infantry battles, supported by artillery, led to the recapture of key strategic peaks after significant effort and casualties.
The Srinagar-Leh highway was secured, and by July 26, 1999, India declared victory
Operation Safed Sagar (Air Campaign)
Operation Safed Sagar (meaning 'White Sea') was the codename for the Indian Air Force's (IAF) air campaign in support of the Indian Army during the Kargil War.
The IAF was tasked with providing air support to ground troops by attacking enemy positions, disrupting their supply lines, and providing reconnaissance.
The IAF was deployed relatively late in the conflict, with the first air strikes commencing on May 26, 1999, several weeks after the initial detection of the intrusion.
This delay was partly due to concerns about escalating the conflict and crossing the Line of Control.
The IAF deployed a variety of aircraft, including MiG-21s, MiG-23s, MiG-27s, and Mirage 2000s. Mi-17 helicopters were used for troop insertion, casualty evacuation, and some armed sorties.
Later, the precision-guided laser-guided bombs (LGBs) fired from Mirage 2000 aircraft proved highly effective in destroying well-entrenched enemy bunkers on peaks like Tiger Hill and supply dumps.
Outcome: India regains territory, international support for India
By 26 July 1999, Indian forces had successfully retaken most of the infiltrated territory.
This day is now observed annually as Kargil Vijay Diwas.
The war resulted in 527 Indian soldiers killed and over 1,300 wounded.
Pakistani casualties were estimated to be between 700 and 1,000, though Pakistan officially denied the involvement of its regular army, claiming the intruders were Kashmiri militants, a claim later disproved.
It severely damaged Pakistan’s international credibility, as its official narrative was contradicted by evidence.
The conflict boosted the Indian military's morale and public image, especially given the heroic feats of soldiers like Captain Vikram Batra, Lt. Manoj Pandey, and others who were posthumously awarded gallantry medals
Politically, the Kargil war increased support for the Indian government at the time and underscored the need for better border vigilance.
Other Conflicts and Surgical Strikes
Operation Meghdoot (1984)
On 13th April 1984, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, Operation Meghdoot was launched by the Indian Army to preempt Pakistan’s attempt to occupy the Siachen Glacier, a strategically significant and disputed region in the eastern Karakoram range of the Himalayas.
Acting on intelligence, India airlifted troops to key passes, Saltoro Ridge, Sia La, Bilafond La, and secured dominating heights before Pakistani forces could arrive.
It marked the first military operation conducted at such extreme altitudes (above 18,000 feet), and India has maintained control of the glacier since.
Despite harsh weather and treacherous terrain, Siachen remains a militarized zone, with both nations maintaining a presence.
Operation Brasstacks (1986–87)
Operation Brasstacks was one of the largest peacetime military exercises ever conducted in South Asia, held by India in Rajasthan near the Pakistan border.
As the Chief of the Army Staff, General K. Sundarji, planned and executed the operation that involved over 500,000 troops, tanks, artillery, and air support, simulating deep strike maneuvers.
Pakistan viewed it as a possible precursor to invasion and responded with its own military mobilization.
The situation escalated into a major standoff, raising fears of a full-scale war or nuclear confrontation.
Diplomatic backchannel talks helped de-escalate tensions, highlighting how close the region had come to conflict despite the absence of active war.
2016 Surgical Strikes
On the night of 28-29 September 2016, India carried out surgical strikes (unofficial codename: Operation X) across the Line of Control (LoC) in Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (PoK) in retaliation for the Uri terror attack, where 19 Indian soldiers were killed by Pakistan-based militants.
The strikes marked a significant shift in India’s military posture, signaling a willingness to respond with precision military action against cross-border terrorism.
Balakot Air Strikes (2019)
In February 2019, a suicide bombing in Pulwama killed 40 Indian paramilitary personnel, prompting India to retaliate with air strikes on a terrorist training camp in Balakot, Pakistan, on February 26.
Dubbed Operation Bandar, this was the first Indian airstrike across the international border since 1971.
The Indian Air Force claimed to have targeted a major Jaish-e-Mohammed camp.
The following day, Pakistan retaliated with its own airstrike, resulting in an aerial dogfight in which Indian pilot Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman was captured and later returned.
The strikes marked a major escalation in India’s counter-terror policy, asserting a new willingness to respond militarily across borders.
Operation Parakram (2001–2002)
Operation Parakram was India’s largest military mobilization since 1971, carried out in response to the December 2001 terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament by Pakistan-based groups.
Over 500,000 Indian troops were deployed along the India–Pakistan border for nearly 10 months, and both nations stood on the brink of war.
Despite the massive buildup, no full-scale war occurred due to international diplomatic pressure, especially from the U.S., and nuclear deterrence.
The standoff ended without combat but highlighted the limitations of conventional deterrence and led to significant changes in India’s military doctrine, including the development of the 'Cold Start' strategy.
Indo-Pak Wars and Conflicts Summary
| Conflict / War | Year | Trigger / Cause | Major Operations | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First Kashmir War | 1947–1948 | Pakistani tribal invasion after J&K's accession to India | Operation Gulmarg (Pak), Operation Rescue (India) | Ceasefire; UN intervention; LoC established |
| Second Kashmir War | 1965 | Pakistan's infiltration in J&K (Operation Gibraltar) | Operation Grand Slam (Pak), Operation Riddle (India) | Stalemate; Tashkent Agreement signed |
| Bangladesh Liberation War | 1971 | Repression in East Pakistan; refugee crisis | Ops Trident, Python, Cactus Lily, Meghna Bridge | Indian victory; creation of Bangladesh |
| Siachen Conflict | 1984–Present | Strategic occupation of Siachen Glacier | Operation Meghdoot | India controls the glacier; ongoing deployment |
| Kargil War | 1999 | Pakistani intrusions in the Kargil sector | Operation Vijay (Army), Safed Sagar (IAF) | India regained territory, global support |
| Operation Parakram | 2001–2002 | Attack on the Indian Parliament | Full troop mobilization (no war) | 10-month standoff; diplomatic resolution |
| Surgical Strikes | 2016 | Uri army base attack | Cross-LoC Para SF strikes | Destroyed terror pads; policy shift |
| Balakot Air Strikes | 2019 | Pulwama suicide bombing | Operation Bandar (IAF) | Airstrike on Balakot camp; escalation |
| Operation Sindoor | 2025 | Pahalgam terror attack killing 27 civilians | Air/missile strikes in Pak & PoK | 100+ militants killed; drone/missile clash |
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